It’s a bit of a fine point, but note that asymptomatic carrier states, meningococcemia, meningococcal sepsis and meningococcal meningitis are all variants of infection with the meningococcus bacterium. They can exist independently of one another. So you can croak without a rash, croak with a rash but without a headache, just be a little sick without croaking at all, or simply remain perfectly healthy with mening living in harmony with the rest of the germs in your snot.
The classic presentation is overwhelming meningococcal sepsis with associated meningitis (and of course, by definition meningococcemia). However since meningococcal disease is essentially a host-defense deficiency, exposure to the meningococcus is not particularly lethal and asymptomatic carrier states of 50% have been reported. It’s a common misperception among the polloi–furthered by us in the medical profession–that meningococcus is a particularly bad bug. It’s pretty benign unless you have crappy host defenses (and then it kills you, but hey…). And most hosts have good defenses.
To the OP question, I’d say we need a clarification of “disease.” Sudden death–minutes–from coronary artery disease is a common killer in the US, but the underlying “disease” was progressive for decades before the catastrophe.
Hypersensitivity to hymenoptera envenomation can obstruct the airway and kill within minutes.
If you are limiting diseases to acquired infections and limiting hosts to those previously healthy and limiting exposure to ordinary routes, then any number of infections can kill rapidly. Hemophilus influenza and other bacteria can inflame the epiglottis and lead to death from respiratory obstruction in hours. Meningococcal infection takes hours once it gets past the host defenses. Clostridial and other soft-tissue necrotizing infections can kill in hours…
With germs of all kinds, though, it’s always a matter of host defenses, most of which are poorly understood and therefore it’s hard to quantitate the exact time of exposure until death. As has been mentioned, rabies is almost uniformly fatal with a typical bite exposure, but of course that’s cheating because the virus has been carried past the normal host defenses by the equivalent of an injection directly into the nervous system where it sneakily travels up to the brain. Functionally that’s like me injecting your central nervous system with germs. Nothing would come of getting rabies virus on your skin, and absent mouth sores etc, you could safely swallow it, too.
There are a lot of cool infectious disease ways to check out in the horizontal mode, and not all of them live in countries served only by the Weekly World News. One of my local-to-the-US favorites is Naegleria Fowleri. Your basic farmboy trucks off to a swimming hole, gets a snootful of bad water up the schnozz and wakes up with his brain being eaten alive by these critters that crawled up his olfactory nerves and gained access to the brain through the cribiform plate in the skull. At a microscopic level it’s right out of Aliens. It may take a week or two but almost everyone with this type of primary amebic meningoencephalitis dies even when we figure it out and try to treat it.